The Role of Neurofeedback in the Treatment of Post-traumatic Stress Disorder: A Neuro Psychological Perspective
Downloads
Background: Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) treatment using neuropsychology has come a long way. Neurofeedback, also called EEG biofeedback, is a technique that teaches the brain to regulate its own electrical activity. Using an EEG, or electroencephalogram, device, one can see brain activity in real-time and be trained to change unbalanced or abnormal brain wave patterns.
Research Purposes: This study was conducted to determine the purpose of neurofeedback, which serves to control this brain activity in a way that is comfortable and suited to the individual. During a neurofeedback session, people usually sit in front of a computer screen and see how their brain activity is depicted. Repetitive training can teach the brain to keep doing healthier activities, even after the therapy session.
Method: The method used by researchers in examining the Role of Neurofeedback in the Treatment of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder: A Neuro Psychological Perspective is to use quantitative methods. The data obtained by researchers were obtained from the results of distributing questionnaires. The questionnaire distribution carried out by researchers was carried out online by utilizing Google From software. The results of the data acquisition will also be tested again using the SPSS application.
Results: From the results of the study, it can be seen that from a neuropsychological perspective, neurofeedback aids the restoration of healthy brain function through repeated and consistent learning. This process is known as neuroplasticity, where the brain reshapes and strengthens neural connections made by new experiences and practice. Therefore, neurofeedback not only reduces PTSD symptoms, but also aids in long-term recovery and improves one's quality of life.
Conclusion: Researchers can conclude that from a neuropsychological point of view, neurofeedback is not only considered as a therapeutic tool, but also as an entry point to understanding and modulating human brain function during recovery from trauma. Neurofeedback also offers an innovative and science-based approach in the treatment of PTSD, potentially expanding the therapeutic options available to individuals experiencing this disorder.
Agnoli, S., Zanon, M., Mastria, S., Avenanti, A., & Corazza, G. E. (2018). Enhancing creative cognition with a rapid right-parietal neurofeedback procedure. Neuropsychologia, 118, 99–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2018.02.015
Anderson, R. E., & Stevenson, H. C. (2019). RECASTing racial stress and trauma: Theorizing the healing potential of racial socialization in families. American Psychologist, 74(1), 63–75. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000392
Ashtiani, M. N., Ashtiani, M. N., & Oskoei, M. A. (2021). Cognitive perturbations affect brain cortical activity and postural control: An investigation of human EEG and motion data. Biomedical Signal Processing and Control, 69, 102955. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bspc.2021.102955
Bioulac, S., Purper-Ouakil, D., Ros, T., Blasco-Fontecilla, H., Prats, M., Mayaud, L., & Brandeis, D. (2019). Personalized at-home neurofeedback compared with long-acting methylphenidate in an european non-inferiority randomized trial in children with ADHD. BMC Psychiatry, 19(1), 237. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-019-2218-0
Biswas, A., & Ray, S. (2019). Alpha Neurofeedback Has a Positive Effect for Participants Who Are Unable to Sustain Their Alpha Activity. Eneuro, 6(4), ENEURO.0498-18.2019. https://doi.org/10.1523/ENEURO.0498-18.2019
Bryant, R. A., Kenny, L., Rawson, N., Cahill, C., Joscelyne, A., Garber, B., Tockar, J., Dawson, K., & Nickerson, A. (2019). Efficacy of exposure-based cognitive behaviour therapy for post-traumatic stress disorder in emergency service personnel: A randomised clinical trial. Psychological Medicine, 49(09), 1565–1573. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291718002234
Comas-Díaz, L., Hall, G. N., & Neville, H. A. (2019). Racial trauma: Theory, research, and healing: Introduction to the special issue. American Psychologist, 74(1), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000442
d’Ettorre, G., Pellicani, V., & Ceccarelli, G. (2020). Post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in healthcare workers: A ten-year systematic review: Post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in healthcare workers. Acta Bio Medica Atenei Parmensis, 91(12-S), e2020009. https://doi.org/10.23750/abm.v91i12-S.9459
Desmarais, P., Weidman, D., Wassef, A., Bruneau, M.-A., Friedland, J., Bajsarowicz, P., Thibodeau, M.-P., Herrmann, N., & Nguyen, Q. D. (2020). The Interplay Between Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and Dementia: A Systematic Review. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 28(1), 48–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2019.08.006
Domingos, C., Peralta, M., Prazeres, P., Nan, W., Rosa, A., & Pereira, J. G. (2021). Session Frequency Matters in Neurofeedback Training of Athletes. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 46(2), 195–204. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10484-021-09505-3
Fear, N. T., Reed, R. V., Rowe, S., Burdett, H., Pernet, D., Mahar, A., Iversen, A. C., Ramchandani, P., Stein, A., & Wessely, S. (2018). Impact of paternal deployment to the conflicts in Iraq and Afghanistan and paternal post-traumatic stress disorder on the children of military fathers. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 212(6), 347–355. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.2017.16
Foot, H., Scott, I. A., Russell, G. M., Cottrell, N., Sturman, N., & Freeman, C. R. (2018). Ethics and site?specific governance approvals for multi?centre, inter?sector health care research. Medical Journal of Australia, 209(4), 175–176. https://doi.org/10.5694/mja17.01017
Groeneveld, K. M., Mennenga, A. M., Heidelberg, R. C., Martin, R. E., Tittle, R. K., Meeuwsen, K. D., Walker, L. A., & White, E. K. (2019). Z-Score Neurofeedback and Heart Rate Variability Training for Adults and Children with Symptoms of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder: A Retrospective Study. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 44(4), 291–308. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10484-019-09439-x
Gupta, S., Mehta, S., Shabbir, J., & Khalil, S. (2018). A unified measure of respondent privacy and model efficiency in quantitative RRT models. Journal of Statistical Theory and Practice, 12(3), 506–511. https://doi.org/10.1080/15598608.2017.1415175
Hou, Y., Zhang, S., Li, N., Huang, Z., Wang, L., & Wang, Y. (2021). Neurofeedback training improves anxiety trait and depressive symptom in GAD. Brain and Behavior, 11(3), e02024. https://doi.org/10.1002/brb3.2024
James, L., & Todak, N. (2018). Prison employment and post?traumatic stress disorder: Risk and protective factors. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 61(9), 725–732. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajim.22869
Jones, J. P., Walker, M. S., Drass, J. M., & Kaimal, G. (2018). Art therapy interventions for active duty military service members with post-traumatic stress disorder and traumatic brain injury. International Journal of Art Therapy, 23(2), 70–85. https://doi.org/10.1080/17454832.2017.1388263
Jurewicz, K., Paluch, K., Kublik, E., Rogala, J., Mikicin, M., & Wróbel, A. (2018). EEG-neurofeedback training of beta band (12–22 Hz) affects alpha and beta frequencies – A controlled study of a healthy population. Neuropsychologia, 108, 13–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.11.021
Karam, E. G., Fayyad, J. A., Farhat, C., Pluess, M., Haddad, Y. C., Tabet, C. C., Farah, L., & Kessler, R. C. (2019). Role of childhood adversities and environmental sensitivity in the development of post-traumatic stress disorder in war-exposed Syrian refugee children and adolescents. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 214(06), 354–360. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.2018.272
Kataoka, T., Fuchikami, M., Nojima, S., Nagashima, N., Araki, M., Omura, J., Miyagi, T., Okamoto, Y., & Morinobu, S. (2019). Combined brain?derived neurotrophic factor with extinction training alleviate impaired fear extinction in an animal model of post?traumatic stress disorder. Genes, Brain and Behavior, 18(7), e12520. https://doi.org/10.1111/gbb.12520
Lavy, Y., Dwolatzky, T., Kaplan, Z., Guez, J., & Todder, D. (2019). Neurofeedback Improves Memory and Peak Alpha Frequency in Individuals with Mild Cognitive Impairment. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 44(1), 41–49. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10484-018-9418-0
Lebois, L. A. M., Li, M., Baker, J. T., Wolff, J. D., Wang, D., Lambros, A. M., Grinspoon, E., Winternitz, S., Ren, J., Gönenç, A., Gruber, S. A., Ressler, K. J., Liu, H., & Kaufman, M. L. (2021). Large-Scale Functional Brain Network Architecture Changes Associated With Trauma-Related Dissociation. American Journal of Psychiatry, 178(2), 165–173. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2020.19060647
Leightley, D., Williamson, V., Darby, J., & Fear, N. T. (2019). Identifying probable post-traumatic stress disorder: Applying supervised machine learning to data from a UK military cohort. Journal of Mental Health, 28(1), 34–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638237.2018.1521946
Lenane, Z., Peacock, E., Joyce, C., Frohlich, E. D., Re, R. N., Muntner, P., & Krousel-Wood, M. (2019). Association of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms Following Hurricane Katrina With Incident Cardiovascular Disease Events Among Older Adults With Hypertension. The American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 27(3), 310–321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2018.11.006
Lorenzetti, V., Melo, B., Basílio, R., Suo, C., Yücel, M., Tierra-Criollo, C. J., & Moll, J. (2018). Emotion Regulation Using Virtual Environments and Real-Time fMRI Neurofeedback. Frontiers in Neurology, 9, 390. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2018.00390
Ma, S., Zhou, J., Huang, T., Zhang, Z., Xing, Q., Zhou, X., Zhang, K., Yao, M., Cheng, T., Wang, X., Wen, X., & Guan, F. (2021). Sodium alginate/collagen/stromal cell-derived factor-1 neural scaffold loaded with BMSCs promotes neurological function recovery after traumatic brain injury. Acta Biomaterialia, 131, 185–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actbio.2021.06.038
Meli, L., Alcántara, C., Sumner, J. A., Swan, B., Chang, B. P., & Edmondson, D. (2019). Enduring somatic threat perceptions and post-traumatic stress disorder symptoms in survivors of cardiac events. Journal of Health Psychology, 24(13), 1817–1827. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105317705982
Misaki, M., Phillips, R., Zotev, V., Wong, C.-K., Wurfel, B. E., Krueger, F., Feldner, M., & Bodurka, J. (2019). Brain activity mediators of PTSD symptom reduction during real-time fMRI amygdala neurofeedback emotional training. NeuroImage: Clinical, 24, 102047. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2019.102047
Müller, V., Perdikis, D., Mende, M. A., & Lindenberger, U. (2021). Interacting brains coming in sync through their minds: An interbrain neurofeedback study. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1500(1), 48–68. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.14605
Nordli, H. R., Pukstad, B., Chinga-Carrasco, G., & Rokstad, A. M. (2019). Ultrapure Wood Nanocellulose—Assessments of Coagulation and Initial Inflammation Potential. ACS Applied Bio Materials, 2(3), 1107–1118. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsabm.8b00711
Orem, T. R., Wheelock, M. D., Goodman, A. M., Harnett, N. G., Wood, K. H., Gossett, E. W., Granger, D. A., Mrug, S., & Knight, D. C. (2019). Amygdala and prefrontal cortex activity varies with individual differences in the emotional response to psychosocial stress. Behavioral Neuroscience, 133(2), 203–211. https://doi.org/10.1037/bne0000305
Patterson, J., Hollins Martin, C. J., & Karatzias, T. (2019). Disempowered midwives and traumatised women: Exploring the parallel processes of care provider interaction that contribute to women developing Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) post childbirth. Midwifery, 76, 21–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.midw.2019.05.010
Pei, G., Wu, J., Chen, D., Guo, G., Liu, S., Hong, M., & Yan, T. (2018). Effects of an Integrated Neurofeedback System with Dry Electrodes: EEG Acquisition and Cognition Assessment. Sensors, 18(10), 3396. https://doi.org/10.3390/s18103396
Perez-Garcia, G., Gama Sosa, M. A., De Gasperi, R., Lashof-Sullivan, M., Maudlin-Jeronimo, E., Stone, J. R., Haghighi, F., Ahlers, S. T., & Elder, G. A. (2018). Chronic post-traumatic stress disorder-related traits in a rat model of low-level blast exposure. Behavioural Brain Research, 340, 117–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2016.09.061
Priebe, K., Kleindienst, N., Schropp, A., Dyer, A., Krüger-Gottschalk, A., Schmahl, C., Steil, R., & Bohus, M. (2018). Defining the index trauma in post-traumatic stress disorder patients with multiple trauma exposure: Impact on severity scores and treatment effects of using worst single incident versus multiple traumatic events. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 9(1), 1486124. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2018.1486124
Prokopy, L. S., Floress, K., Arbuckle, J. G., Church, S. P., Eanes, F. R., Gao, Y., Gramig, B. M., Ranjan, P., & Singh, A. S. (2019). Adoption of agricultural conservation practices in the United States: Evidence from 35 years of quantitative literature. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 74(5), 520–534. https://doi.org/10.2489/jswc.74.5.520
Rajabi, S., Pakize, A., & Moradi, N. (2020). Effect of combined neurofeedback and game-based cognitive training on the treatment of ADHD: A randomized controlled study. Applied Neuropsychology: Child, 9(3), 193–205. https://doi.org/10.1080/21622965.2018.1556101
Ros, T., Enriquez-Geppert, S., Zotev, V., Young, K. D., Wood, G., Whitfield-Gabrieli, S., Wan, F., Vuilleumier, P., Vialatte, F., Van De Ville, D., Todder, D., Surmeli, T., Sulzer, J. S., Strehl, U., Sterman, M. B., Steiner, N. J., Sorger, B., Soekadar, S. R., Sitaram, R., … Thibault, R. T. (2020). Consensus on the reporting and experimental design of clinical and cognitive-behavioural neurofeedback studies (CRED-nf checklist). Brain, 143(6), 1674–1685. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awaa009
Rosellini, A. J., Liu, H., Petukhova, M. V., Sampson, N. A., Aguilar-Gaxiola, S., Alonso, J., Borges, G., Bruffaerts, R., Bromet, E. J., De Girolamo, G., De Jonge, P., Fayyad, J., Florescu, S., Gureje, O., Haro, J. M., Hinkov, H., Karam, E. G., Kawakami, N., Koenen, K. C., … Kessler, R. C. (2018). Recovery from DSM-IV post-traumatic stress disorder in the WHO World Mental Health surveys. Psychological Medicine, 48(3), 437–450. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291717001817
Santhanam, P., Teslovich, T., Wilson, S. H., Yeh, P.-H., Oakes, T. R., & Weaver, L. K. (2019). Decreases in White Matter Integrity of Ventro-Limbic Pathway Linked to Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder in Mild Traumatic Brain Injury. Journal of Neurotrauma, 36(7), 1093–1098. https://doi.org/10.1089/neu.2017.5541
Scherer, A. G., & Voegtlin, C. (2020). Corporate Governance for Responsible Innovation: Approaches to Corporate Governance and Their Implications for Sustainable Development. Academy of Management Perspectives, 34(2), 182–208. https://doi.org/10.5465/amp.2017.0175
Schumacher, D. J., Schwartz, A., Zenel, J. A., Paradise Black, N., Ponitz, K., Blair, R., Traba, C. M., Poynter, S., King, B., Englander, R., Rosenberg, A., Patel, D., Smith-King, C., O’Connor, M., Gonzalez Del Rey, J., Lavoie, S., Borman-Shoap, E., Carraccio, C., & for the Association of Pediatric Program Directors (APPD) Longitudinal Educational Assessment Research Network (LEARN) General Pediatrics Entrustable Professional Activities Study Group. (2020). Narrative Performance Level Assignments at Initial Entrustment and Graduation: Integrating EPAs and Milestones to Improve Learner Assessment. Academic Medicine, 95(11), 1736–1744. https://doi.org/10.1097/ACM.0000000000003300
Seo, J.-H., Park, H.-S., Park, S.-S., Kim, C.-J., Kim, D.-H., & Kim, T.-W. (2019). Physical exercise ameliorates psychiatric disorders and cognitive dysfunctions by hippocampal mitochondrial function and neuroplasticity in post-traumatic stress disorder. Experimental Neurology, 322, 113043. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.expneurol.2019.113043
Sho’ouri, N., Firoozabadi, M., & Badie, K. (2019). Neurofeedback training protocols based on selecting distinctive features and identifying appropriate channels to enhance performance in novice visual artists. Biomedical Signal Processing and Control, 49, 308–321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bspc.2018.12.013
Sho’ouri, N., Firoozabadi, M., & Badie, K. (2020). The effect of beta/alpha neurofeedback training on imitating brain activity patterns in visual artists. Biomedical Signal Processing and Control, 56, 101661. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bspc.2019.101661
Sochacka, N. W., Walther, J., & Pawley, A. L. (2018). Ethical Validation: Reframing Research Ethics in Engineering Education Research To Improve Research Quality. Journal of Engineering Education, 107(3), 362–379. https://doi.org/10.1002/jee.20222
Soder, H. E., Wardle, M. C., Schmitz, J. M., Lane, S. D., Green, C., & Vujanovic, A. A. (2019). Baseline resting heart rate variability predicts post?traumatic stress disorder treatment outcomes in adults with co?occurring substance use disorders and post?traumatic stress. Psychophysiology, 56(8), e13377. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.13377
Sorrentino, Z. A., Goodwin, M. S., Riffe, C. J., Dhillon, J.-K. S., Xia, Y., Gorion, K.-M., Vijayaraghavan, N., McFarland, K. N., Golbe, L. I., Yachnis, A. T., & Giasson, B. I. (2019). Unique ?-synuclein pathology within the amygdala in Lewy body dementia: Implications for disease initiation and progression. Acta Neuropathologica Communications, 7(1), 142. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40478-019-0787-2
Stein, L. A., Goldmann, E., Zamzam, A., Luciano, J. M., Messé, S. R., Cucchiara, B. L., Kasner, S. E., & Mullen, M. T. (2018). Association Between Anxiety, Depression, and Post-traumatic Stress Disorder and Outcomes After Ischemic Stroke. Frontiers in Neurology, 9, 890. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2018.00890
Sudnawa, K. K., Chirdkiatgumchai, V., Ruangdaraganon, N., Khongkhatithum, C., Udomsubpayakul, U., Jirayucharoensak, S., & Israsena, P. (2018). Effectiveness of neurofeedback versus medication for attention?deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Pediatrics International, 60(9), 828–834. https://doi.org/10.1111/ped.13641
Sukhodolsky, D. G., Walsh, C., Koller, W. N., Eilbott, J., Rance, M., Fulbright, R. K., Zhao, Z., Bloch, M. H., King, R., Leckman, J. F., Scheinost, D., Pittman, B., & Hampson, M. (2020). Randomized, Sham-Controlled Trial of Real-Time Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Neurofeedback for Tics in Adolescents With Tourette Syndrome. Biological Psychiatry, 87(12), 1063–1070. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.07.035
Välikangas, T., Suomi, T., & Elo, L. L. (2016). A systematic evaluation of normalization methods in quantitative label-free proteomics. Briefings in Bioinformatics, bbw095. https://doi.org/10.1093/bib/bbw095
Van Der Kolk, B., Ford, J. D., & Spinazzola, J. (2019). Comorbidity of developmental trauma disorder (DTD) and post-traumatic stress disorder: Findings from the DTD field trial. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 10(1), 1562841. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2018.1562841
Van Son, D., Van Der Does, W., Band, G. P. H., & Putman, P. (2020). EEG Theta/Beta Ratio Neurofeedback Training in Healthy Females. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 45(3), 195–210. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10484-020-09472-1
Van Woudenberg, C., Voorendonk, E. M., Bongaerts, H., Zoet, H. A., Verhagen, M., Lee, C. W., Van Minnen, A., & De Jongh, A. (2018). Effectiveness of an intensive treatment programme combining prolonged exposure and eye movement desensitization and reprocessing for severe post-traumatic stress disorder. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 9(1), 1487225. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2018.1487225
Viard, A., Mutlu, J., Chanraud, S., Guenolé, F., Egler, P.-J., Gérardin, P., Baleyte, J.-M., Dayan, J., Eustache, F., & Guillery-Girard, B. (2019). Altered default mode network connectivity in adolescents with post-traumatic stress disorder. NeuroImage: Clinical, 22, 101731. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2019.101731
Wang, Q., Shelton, R. C., & Dwivedi, Y. (2018). Interaction between early-life stress and FKBP5 gene variants in major depressive disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 225, 422–428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2017.08.066
Wang, Y., Zhang, R., Chen, J., Wu, H., Lu, S., Wang, K., Li, H., Harris, C. J., Xi, K., Kumar, R. V., & Ding, S. (2019). Enhancing Catalytic Activity of Titanium Oxide in Lithium–Sulfur Batteries by Band Engineering. Advanced Energy Materials, 9(24), 1900953. https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201900953
White, D. L., Kunik, M. E., Yu, H., Lin, H. L., Richardson, P. A., Moore, S., Sarwar, A. I., Marsh, L., & Jorge, R. E. (2020). Post?Traumatic Stress Disorder is Associated with further Increased Parkinson’s Disease Risk in Veterans with Traumatic Brain Injury. Annals of Neurology, 88(1), 33–41. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.25726
Xu, K., Fujita, Y., Lu, Y., Honda, S., Shiomi, M., Arie, T., Akita, S., & Takei, K. (2021). A Wearable Body Condition Sensor System with Wireless Feedback Alarm Functions. Advanced Materials, 33(18), 2008701. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.202008701
Yan, H., Xie, Y., Wu, A., Cai, Z., Wang, L., Tian, C., Zhang, X., & Fu, H. (2019). Anion?Modulated HER and OER Activities of 3D Ni–V?Based Interstitial Compound Heterojunctions for High?Efficiency and Stable Overall Water Splitting. Advanced Materials, 31(23), 1901174. https://doi.org/10.1002/adma.201901174
Young, K. D., Siegle, G. J., Misaki, M., Zotev, V., Phillips, R., Drevets, W. C., & Bodurka, J. (2018). Altered task-based and resting-state amygdala functional connectivity following real-time fMRI amygdala neurofeedback training in major depressive disorder. NeuroImage: Clinical, 17, 691–703. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2017.12.004
Zhigalov, A., Heinilä, E., Parviainen, T., Parkkonen, L., & Hyvärinen, A. (2019). Decoding attentional states for neurofeedback: Mindfulness vs. wandering thoughts. NeuroImage, 185, 565–574. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2018.10.014
Copyright (c) 2024 Mujahidah Mujahidah, Elly Marlina, Amalia Nur Aini, Sri Hasnawati, Aprilinda M Harahap

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.


















